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Publications: (* student of C. Fletcher)


    (in revision)

  1. Bochicchio*, C., Fletcher, C.H., Vitousek*, S., Romine*,B., Smith, T. (in revision) Understanding long-term shoreline change through integration of historical aerial photographic, sedimentological, and computer modeling techniques: Lanikai and Bellows Beaches, Oahu, Hawaii. Marine Geology.
  2. 2012

  3. Fletcher, C.H., Romine, B.M., Genz, A.S., Barbee, M.M., Dyer, M., Anderson, T.R., Lim, S.C., Vitousek, S., Bochicchio, C., and Richmond, B.M., 2012, National assessment of shoreline change: Historical shoreline change in the Hawaiian Islands: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1051, 55 p.
  4. Haunani H. Kane, Charles H. Fletcher, Bradley M. Romine, Tiffany R. Anderson, Neil L. Frazer, and Matthew M. Barbee (2012) Vulnerability Assessment of Hawai'i's Cultural Assets Attributable to Erosion Using Shoreline Trend Analysis Techniques. Journal of Coastal Research (In-Press).
  5. Romine, B.M., Fletcher, C.H., Genz, A.S., Barbee, M.M., Dyer, Matthew, Anderson, T.R., Lim, S.C., Vitousek, Sean, Bochicchio, Christopher, and Richmond, B.M., 2012, National Assessment of Shoreline Change:  A GIS compilation of vector shorelines and associated shoreline change data for the sandy shorelines of Kauai, Oahu, and Maui, Hawaii: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011-1009.
  6. Romine, B.M. and Fletcher, C.H., 2012. A summary of historical shoreline changes on beaches of Kauai, Oahu, and Maui; Hawaii. Journal of Coastal Research (In-press). West Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.
  7. B.M. Romine and C.H. Fletcher (in press), Armoring on Eroding Coasts Leads to Beach Narrowing and Loss on Oahu, Hawaii, in Pitfalls of Shoreline Stabilization: Selected Case Studes, J.A.G. Cooper and O.H. Pilkey (eds.), Coastal Research Library 3, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4123-2_10, Springer Science and Business Media, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
  8. 2011

  9. Ostrander, C.E., Seim, H., Smith, E., Studer, B., Luscher-Aissauoi, A., and Fletcher, C., 2011 Contributions of the U.S. integrated ocean observing system to national and regional coastal hazards and resource information, tools, and services, Marine Technology Journal, v. 45, no. 1, p. 29-38.
  10. 2010

  11. Fletcher, C.H. (2010) Physical Geology: The Science of Earth, J. Wiley and Sons, Pub., NY, 679p.
  12. Fletcher, C.H., Boyd, R., Neal, W.J., Tice, V. (2010) Living on the Shores of Hawaii: Natural Hazards, the Environment, and our Communities, UH Press, 371p.
  13. Fletcher, C.H. (2010) Hawaii's Changing Climate, Briefing Sheet (2010). University of Hawaii Sea Grant College Program, Center for Island Climate Adaptation and Policy, Honolulu, 7p.
  14. 2009

  15. Anderson*, T.R., Frazer, L.N., Fletcher, C.H. (2009) Transient and persistent shoreline change from a storm. Geophysical Research letters, v. 37, L08401 and AUX MATERIALS
  16. Bochicchio*, C., Fletcher, C.H., Dyer*, M., Smith, T. (2009) Reef-top sediment bodies: Windward Oahu, Hawaii. Pacific Science, vol. 63, no. 1:61-82.
  17. Conger*, C.L., Fletcher, C.H., Hochberg, E.J., Frazer, N., Rooney*, J.J., (2009). Remote sensing of sand distribution patterns across an insular shelf: Oahu, Hawaii. Marine Geology, vol. 267, no. 3-4: 175-190.
  18. Fletcher, C.H. (2009) Sea level by the end of the 21st century: A review. Shore and Beach, v. 77, no. 4, pp. 1-9.
  19. Fletcher, C.H., Fiersten*, E.J. (2009) Hawaii, in The Worlds Coastal Landforms, Bird, E.C.F. (ed.), Chapter 1.16, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg.
  20. Fletcher, C.H., Richmond, B.M. (2009) Climate Change in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ka Pili Kai, Fall, 31.3, p. 3-5.
  21. Frazer, L.N., Anderson*, T.R., Fletcher, C.H. (2009) Modeling storms improves estimates of long-term shoreline change. Geophysical Research Letters, v. 36, L20404.
  22. Frazer, L.N., Genz*, A.S., and Fletcher, C.H. (2009) Toward parsimony in shoreline change prediction (I): Basis function methods. Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 25, no. 2: 366-379.
  23. Genz*, A.S., Frazer, L.N., and Fletcher, C.H. (2009) Toward parsimony in shoreline change prediction (II): Applying basis function methods to real and synthetic data. Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 25, no. 2: 380-392.
  24. Romine, B.M., Fletcher, C.H., Frazer, L.N., Genz, A.S., Barbee, M.M., and Lim, S.C. (2009) Historical shoreline change, southeast Oahu, Hawaii: Applying polynomial models to calculate shoreline change rates. Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 24, no. 6: 1236-1253.
  25. 2008

  26. Engels*, M.S., Fletcher, C.H., Field, M., Conger*, C.L., Bochicchio*, C. (2008) Demise of reef-flat carbonate accumulation with late Holocene sea-level fall: evidence from Molokai, Hawaii. Coral Reefs.
  27. Fletcher, C.H., Bochicchio*, C., Conger*, C.L., Engels*, M., Feirstein*, E.J., Grossman*, Grigg, R., E.E., Harney*, J.N., Rooney*, J.J., Sherman*, C.E., Vitousek, S., Rubin, K., Murray-Wallace, C.V. (2008) Geology of Hawaii Reefs. Chapter 11 in "Coral Reefs of the U.S.A.", Springer, p. 435-488.
  28. Norcross*, Z., Fletcher, C.H., Barbee*, M.,Genz*, A.S., and Romine*,B. (2008) Bringing sea-level rise into long range planning considerations on Maui, Hawaii. Proceedings: Solution to Coastal Disaster 2008, Oahu, Hawaii, April 13-16, p. 107-116.
  29. Romine*, B., Fletcher, C.H., Genz*, A.S., Barbee*, M., Lim, S.-C., Dyer, M. and Vinson, A. (2008) Measuring historical shoreline change, applying new polynomial change models: southeast Oahu, Hawaii. Proceedings: Solution to Coastal Disaster 2008, Oahu, Hawaii, April 13-16, p. 668-678.
  30. Rooney J, Wessel P, Hoeke R, Weiss J, Baker J, Parrish F, Fletcher CH, Chojnacki J, Garcia M, Brainard R, Vroom P (2008) Geology and geomorphology of coral reefs in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. In: Riegl BM, Dodge RE (eds) Coral Reefs of the USA. Coral Reefs of the World, Vol 1, Springer, pp. 515-567
  31. Vitousek*, S. and Fletcher, C.H. (2008) Maximum annually recurring wave heights in Hawai‘i. Pacific Science, vol. 62, no. 4: 541-553.
  32. Vitousek*, S., Fletcher, C.H. and Barbee*, M. (2008) A practical approach to mapping extreme wave inundation: consequences of sea-level rise and coastal erosion. Proceedings: Solution to Coastal Disaster 2008, Oahu, Hawaii, April 13-16, p. 85-96
  33. 2007

  34. Genz*, A.S., Fletcher, C.H., Dunn, R.A., Frazer, L.N., and Rooney*, J.J. (2007) The predictive accuracy of shoreline change rate methods and alongshore beach variation on Maui, Hawaii. Journal of Coastal Research, 23(1), p. 87-105.
  35. Genz, A.S., L. Neil Frazer, Charles H. Fletcher, 2007, Improving statistical validity in calculating erosion hazards from historical shorelines.  Proceedings, Coastal Sediments '07, New Orleans, ASCE, May 13-17, p. 1799-1812.
  36. Vitousek*, S., Fletcher, C.H., Merrifield, M.A., Pawlak, G., and Storlazzi, C., 2007, Model scenarios of shoreline change at Kaanapali Beach, Maui, Hawaii: Seasonal and extreme events. Proceedings, Coastal Sediments '07, New Orleans, ASCE, May 13-17, p. 1227-1240.
  37. 2006 and earlier

  38. Conger*, Christopher L., Eric J. Hochberg, Charles H. Fletcher, III, and Marlin J. Atkinson (2006) A new method of decorrelating remote sensing color bands from bathymetry in optically shallow waters. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 44(6): 1655-1660
  39. Conger*, C.L., Fletcher, C.H., Barbee*, M., (2005) Artificial neural network classification of sand in all visible submarine and subaerial regions of a digital image. Journal of Coastal Research, 21.6, p. 1173-1177.
  40. Fletcher, C.H., Murray-Wallace, C., Glenn, C., Popp, B., Sherman*, C. (2005) Age and origin of late quaternary eolianite, Kaiehu Point (Moomomi), Molokai, Hawaii. Journal of Coastal Research, SI 42, p. 97-112.
  41. Rooney*, J.J.B., and Fletcher, C.H. (2005) Shoreline change and Pacific climatic oscillations in Kihei, Maui, Hawaii. Journal of Coastal Research, v. 21.3, p. 535-547.
  42. Rooney*, J.J.R., Fletcher, C.H., Grossman*, E.E., Engels*, M., Field, M.E. (2004) El Nino influence on Holocene reef accretion in Hawaii. Pacific Science, v. 58, no. 2, p. 305-324.  
  43. Engels*, M.S., Fletcher, C.H., Field, M.E., Storlazzi, C.D., Grossman*, E.E., Rooney*, J.J.B., Conger*, C.L., and Glenn, C. (2004) Holocene reef accretion: Southwest Molokai, Hawaii, U.S.A., Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 74, no. 2, p. 255-269.
  44. Grossman*, E.E. and Fletcher, C.H. (2004) Holocene reef development where wave energy reduces accommodation space, Kailua Bay, Windward Oahu, Hawaii, U.S.A., Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 74, no. 1, p. 49-63.
  45. Fierstein*, E., and Fletcher, C.H. (2004) Hawaii's coastline: Chapter for the world's coastline, ed. Eric Bird, (44p.) http://www.wkap.nl/subjects/TWCO
  46. Fletcher, C.H. and co-authors (2001-2003) Erosion hazard maps of the Kihei, Maui coastline, http://www.co.maui.hi.us/departments/Planning/czmp/intro.htm, 1:3000
  47. Fletcher, C.H. and co-authors (2001-2003) Erosion hazard maps of the West Maui coastline, http://www.co.maui.hi.us/departments/Planning/czmp/intro.htm, 1:3000
  48. Fletcher, C.H. and co-authors (2001-2003) Erosion hazard maps of the North Maui coastline, http://www.co.maui.hi.us/departments/Planning/czmp/intro.htm, 1:3000
  49. Fletcher, C., Rooney*, J., Barbee*, M., Lim*, S.-C., and Richmond, B. (2003) Mapping shoreline change using digital orthophotogrammetry on Maui, Hawaii. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 38, p. 106-124.
  50. Rooney*, J., Fletcher, C.H., Barbee*, M., Eversole*, D., Lim*, S.C., Richmond, B.M., and Gibbs, A., (2003) Dynamics of sandy shorelines in Maui, Hawaii: Consequences and causes. Coastal Sediments, '03.
  51. Harney*, J.N., and Fletcher, C.H. (2003) A budget of carbonate framework and sediment production, Kailua Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 73, no. 6, p. 856-868.
  52. Norcross*, Z., Fletcher, C.H., Rooney*, J.J.R., Eversole*, D., and Miller*, T.L., 2003.  Hawaiian beaches dominated by longshore transport.  Proceedings, Coastal Sediments '03, Clearwater, Florida, May 18-23, 2003.
  53. Eversole*, D. and Fletcher, C.H. (2003) Longshore sediment transport rates on a reef-fronted beach: Field data and empirical models, Kaanapali Beach, Hawaii: Journal of Coastal Research, v. 19, p. 649-663.
  54. Miller*, T.L. and Fletcher, C.H. (2003) Waikiki: Historical analysis of an engineered shoreline. Journal of Coastal Research, v. 19.4, p. 1026-1043.
  55. Harney*, J.N. and Fletcher, C.H. (2003) Modeling biogenic sediment production on carbonate coasts. Coastal Sediments '03.
  56. Isoun*, E., Fletcher, C.H., Frazer, N., and Gradie, J. (2003) Multi-spectral mapping of reef bathymetry and coral cover; Kailua Bay, Hawaii. Coral Reefs, v. 22, p. 68-82.
  57. Fletcher, C.H. and Murray-Wallace, C., Eds. (2002) Coastal environmental change during sea level highstands: Special Issue, 12 papers, Sedimentary Geology.
  58. Fletcher, C.H., Grossman, E.E., Richmond, B.M., Gibbs, A.E. (2002) Atlas of natural hazards in the Hawaiian coastal zone. U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO, Geologic Investigations Series I-2761, 182p. http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/i-map/i2761/
  59. Norcross*, Z.M., Fletcher, C.H., and Merrifield, M. (2002) Annual and interannual changes on a reef-fringed pocket beach: Kailua Bay, Hawaii. Marine Geology 190, p. 553-580.
  60. Calhoun*, R.S., C.H. Fletcher, and J.N. Harney* (2002) A budget of marine and terrigenous sediments, Hanalei Bay, Kauai, Hawaiian Islands. Sedimentary Geology, 150, 1-2, 61-87.
  61. Gibbs, A.E., Richmond, B.M., Fletcher, C.H., and Hilman, K.P. (2001) Hawaii Beach Monitoring Program: Beach Profile Data: USGS Open File Report 01-308, ver. 1.0.
  62. Anderson, J, Rodriquez, A., Fletcher, C.H., Fitzgerald, D., (2001) Researchers focus attention on coastal response to climate change. American Geophysical Union, EOS, v.82, no. 44, October 30.
  63. Richmond, B.M., Fletcher, C.H., Grossman*, E.E., and Gibbs, A.E. (2001) Islands at Risk: Coastal hazard assessment and mapping in the Hawaiian islands: Environmental Geosciences, v. 8, no. 1, p. 21-37.
  64. Rubin, K.H., Fletcher, C.H., and Sherman*, C. (2000) Fossiliferous Lana'i deposits formed by multiple events rather than a single giant tsunami. Nature (article), p. 675-681, v. 408, Dec. 7.
  65. Fletcher, C.H. and 6 co-authors (2000) Coastal Geology: A Critical National and Global Priority, Workshop Report, Geology and Paleontology Program, NSF.
  66. Fletcher, C.H. (2000) Research in the sedimentary geology of the coastal zone and inner shelf. GSA Today, v. 10, no. 6, p. 10-11.
  67. Fletcher, C.H., Anderson, J, Crook, K.A.W., Kaminsky, G., Larcombe, P., Murray-Wallace, C.V., Sansone, F., Scott, D.B., Riggs, S., Sallenger, A.H., Shennan, I., Theiler, E.R., Wehmiller, J.F. (2000) Coastal sedimentary research examines critical issues of national and global priority. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, v. 81, no. 17, p. 181-186.
  68. Gibbs, A.E., Richmond, B.M., and Fletcher, C.H. (2000) Beach profile variation on Hawaiian carbonate beaches. Proceedings, Carbonate Beaches 2000, First International Symposium on Carbonate Sand Beaches, December 5-8, Key Largo, FL, p. 67-81.
  69. Hampton, M.A., Fletcher, C.H., Barry, J.H., and Lemmo, S.J. (2000) The Halekulani sand channel and Makua shelf sediment deposits: Are they a sand resource for replenishing Waikiki's beaches? Proceedings, Carbonate Beaches 2000, First International Symposium on Carbonate Sand Beaches, December 5-8, Key Largo, FL, p. 67-81.
  70. Rooney*, J.J.B. and Fletcher, C.H. (2000) A high resolution, digital, aerial photogrammetric analysis of historical shoreline change and net sediment transport along the Kihei Coast of Maui, Hawaii. Beach Preservation Technology, v. 13, p. 281-296.
  71. Harney*, J.N., Grossman*, E.E., Richmond, B.M., and Fletcher, C.H. (2000) Age and composition of carbonate shoreface sediments, Kailua Bay, Oahu, Hawaii: Coral Reefs, v. 19, pg. 141-154.
  72. Calhoun*, R.S., and Fletcher, C.H. (1999) Measured and predicted sediment yield from a subtropical, heavy rainfall, steep-sided river basin: Hanalei, Kauai. Geomorphology, v. 30, p. 213-226.
  73. Fletcher, C.H., and Lemmo, S.J. (1999) Hawaii's Emergent Coastal Erosion Management Program. Shore and Beach, v. 67, no. 4, pp. 15-20
  74. Sherman*, C., Fletcher, C.H., and Rubin, K. (1999) Marine and meteoric diagenesis of Pleistocene carbonates from a nearshore submarine terrace, Oahu, Hawaii. Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 69, no. 6.
  75. Fletcher, C.H. (1999) Paleoclimate and Geography. Atlas of Hawaii, UH Press, p.64-67.
  76. Fletcher, C.H. (1999) Coastal Hazards. Atlas of Hawaii, UH Press, p. 79-82.
  77. Coyne*, M.A., Fletcher, C.H., and Richmond, B.M., (1999) Mapping erosion hazard areas in Hawaii: Observations and Errors. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue #28, p. 171-185.
  78. Harney*, J.N., Hallock-Muller, P., Fletcher, C.H., Resig, J.M., and Richmond, B.M. (1999) Standing crop and sediment production of reef-dwelling foraminifera on Oahu, Hawaii. Pacific Science, v. 53, no. 1, p. 61-73.
  79. Fletcher, C.H., and 11 co-authors (1998) FUMAGES, Shelf and Shoreface Sediments: Thematic Working Group #3. The Future of Marine Geology and Geophysics (FUMAGES), Report of a Workshop, Ashland Hills, Oregon, December 5-7, 1996, Baker, P. and McNutt, M. (Eds.), Chapter 4, p. 47-70, Sponsored by National Science Foundation's Marine Geology and Geophysics and Ocean Drilling Programs, Division of Ocean Sciences, 264p.
  80. Fletcher, C.H. (1998) COEMAP - The Coastal Erosion Management Plan for the State of Hawaii: Board of Land and Natural Resources. Adopted and endorsed by all state and county agencies with decision-making authority in the Hawaiian coastal zone (by unanimous vote, March, 1999). Created new Coastal Lands Program, and new "Beaches Fund" by Legislative and Executive Authority, Act 84 - passed in FY'99.
  81. Grossman*, E., Fletcher, C., and Richmond, B. (1998) The holocene sea-level highstand in the Equatorial Pacific: Analysis of the insular paleosea-level database. Coral Reefs. Special Issue on Holocene and Pleistocene coral reef geology: v. 17, p. 309-327.
  82. Grossman*, E.E., and Fletcher, C.H., (1998) Sea level 3500 years ago on the Northern Main Hawaiian Islands. Geology, April, v. 26, no. 4, p. 363-366
  83. Fletcher, C.H. (1997) The case of the vanishing beaches. Nature, v. 388, July 3.
  84. Fletcher, C.H., Mullane*, R.A., and Richmond, B.M. (1997) Beach loss along armored shorelines on Oahu, Hawaiian islands. Journal of Coastal Research, v. 13, p. 209-215.
  85. Fletcher, C.H. (1997) Hawaii's Beaches and Coastal Lands, Landscape Hawaii, v.1.4.
  86. Fletcher, C.H. (1997) The Science and Management of Hawaii's Beaches. Hawaii Planning, v. xviii, p. 1-5.
  87. Coyne*, M., Mullane*, R.A., and Fletcher, C.H. (1996) Losing Oahu, (featured cover article), Geotimes, v. 41, no. 12, p. 23-26.
  88. Calhoun*, R.S., Fletcher, C.H. (1996) Late Holocene coastal-plain stratigraphy and sea level history at Hanalei, Kauai, Hawaiian Islands. Quaternary Research. 45, p. 47-58.
  89. Wiswall, C.G. and Fletcher, C.H. (1996) Investigating Earth (2nd Ed.). Wm. C. Brown Publishers, p. 240.
  90. Fletcher, C.H., Jones, A.T. (1996) Sea-level highstand recorded in Holocene shoreline deposits on Oahu, Hawaii. Journal of Sedimentary Research. 66.3, p. 632-641.
  91. Fletcher, C.H. and Sherman*, C. (1995) Submerged shorelines on Oahu, Hawaii: Archive of episodic transgression during the deglaciation? Journal Coastal Research, Special Issue 17 Holocene Cycles: Climate, Sea Level, and Sediment, p. 141-152.
  92. Fletcher, C.H., Richmond, B.M., Barnes, G.M., Schroeder, T.A. (1995) Marine flooding on the coast of Kauai during Hurricane Iniki: Hindcasting inundation components and delineating washover. Journal of Coastal Research, 10.4, p. 890-907.
  93. Fletcher, C.H., Schroeder, T.A., and Richmond, B.M. (1994) Impact of Hurricane Iniki overwash on the coastal zone of Kauai. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers Conference on Hurricanes of 1992, p. 746-755, Miami.
  94. Fletcher, C.H., and Hwang, D.J. (1994) Shoreline certification review and recommendations. A Report to the Hawaii Coastal Zone Management Program, 76p.
  95. Fletcher, C.H., Van Pelt*, J.E., Brush, G.S., and Sherman, J. (1993) Tidal wetland record of Holocene sea-level movements and climate history. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 102, p. 1-37.
  96. Fletcher, C.H., Pizzuto, J., John, S., and van Pelt*, J. (1993) Sea-level rise acceleration and the drowning of the Delaware Bay coast at 1.8 ka. Geology, 21, p. 121-124
  97. Fletcher, C., Fairbridge, R., Moller, J., and Long, A. (1993) Emergence of the Varanger Peninsula, Norway and Climate since Deglaciation. The Holocene, v. 3.2, p. 116-127.
  98. Hwang, D., and Fletcher, C. (1992) Beach management plan with beach management districts. A Report to the Hawaii Coastal Zone Management Program, 192p.
  99. Fletcher, C.H., (1992) Sea-Level Trends and Physical Consequences: Applications to the U.S. shore. Earth-Science Reviews, v. 33, p. 1-36.
  100. Fletcher, C.H. and Wehmiller, J. W., Eds. (1992) Quaternary Coasts of the United States: Marine and Lacustrine Systems. SEPM Special Publication No. 48, (Society for Sedimentary Geology) Tulsa, 450p.
  101. Fletcher, C.H., Knebel, H.J., Kraft, J.C. (1992) Holocene depocenter migration and sediment accumulation in Delaware Bay, a submerging marginal marine sedimentary basin. Marine Geology, v. 103, p. 165-183.
  102. Donoghue, J.F., Davis, R.A., Fletcher, C.H., and Suter, J.R., Eds., (1991) Quaternary Coastal Evolution, Sedimentary Geology (Special Issue), 15 papers, p. 137-331.
  103. Fletcher, C.H. and Wiswall, C.G. (1991) Investigating Earth (1st Ed.). Wm. C. Brown Publishers, p. 264.
  104. Fletcher, C.H., Knebel, H., and Kraft, J. (1990) Holocene evolution of an estuarine coast and tidal wetlands. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 102, p. 283 - 297.
  105. Knebel, J., Fletcher, C., Kraft, J.C. (1988) Late Wisconsinan-Holocene paleogeography of Delaware Bay, a large coastal plain estuary. Marine Geology, v. 83, p. 115-133.
  106. Fletcher, C.H. (1988) Holocene sea-level history and neotectonics of the United States Mid-Atlantic region: applications and corrections. J. of Geology, v. 96, p. 323-337.
  107. Fletcher, C.H. (1985) Distribution of Chloride in a transgression sequence of fine grained sediments, Geo-Marine Letters, v. 4, p. 185-189.
  108. Sallenger, A.H., Howard, P.C., Fletcher, C.H., Howd, P. (1983) A system for measuring bottom profile, waves and currents in the high energy nearshore environment. Marine Geology, v. 51, p. 63-76.